Duane retraction syndrome comprises a group of motility disturbances in which the common feature is co-contraction of medial and lateral rectus muscles on attempted adduction of the involved eye(s). Abnormal clinical features associated with DRS include horizontal deviation in primary position, abnormal head position, retraction of the globe on attempted adduction leading to pseudoptosis, up shoot and/or down shoot in attempted adduction, amblyopia, A,V and X patterns and various ocular and systemic anomalies can also occur. The syndrome is bilateral in 10% to 20% of cases.

Diabetic macular edema (DME) is a major sight-threatening cause in diabetic patients. The pathophysiology of macular edema involves both the presence of inflammation and angiogenic stimulant regarding vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) [1]. Intravitreal injections of anti-VEGF, including ranibizumab [2-8], bevacizuamb [9], pegaptanib [10], aflibercept [11] are proven to be effective for managing DME. Intravitreal injections of corticosteroids, potent anti-inflammatory agents, such as fluocinolone acetonide implants (Retisert) [12], fluocinolone acetonide inserts (Iluvein) [13,14], dexamethasone implants [15,16], and triamcinolone acetonide [2] have been shown to be beneficial to DME. The Food and Drug Administration of US and European Medicines Agency have approved intravitreal injections of fluocinolone acetonide inserts (Iluvein), dexamethasone implants, aflibercept, and ranibizumab for treating DME. Herein the long-term outcome of the randomized controlled studies in these approved pharmacotherapies will be reviewed.

Keratoconus (KC) is a corneal ectatic disorder characterized by irregular corneal surface elevation, interruptions in the Bowman’s layer, stromal thinning and degeneration [1-3]. Irregular astigmatism and myopia can cause severe visual impairment. Oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) is a group of inherited disorders of melanin biosynthesis characterized by a generalized reduction in pigmentation of hair, skin and eyes. The inheritance pattern of albinism is autosomal recessive. Mutations in the tyrosinase [TYR] gene on chromosome 11 q14-q21 are reportedly common in most cases of OCA. The inheritance patterns of keratoconus are more complex than albinism due to the involvement of environmental factors in the incidence of KC. The most studied gene involved in KC is VSX1 gene, which is also involved in other corneal dystrophies [4]. Clinical manifestations of albinism include various degrees of congenital nystagmus, hypopigmentation and refractive errors, however, the association of albinism, keratoconus and corneal vascularisation were not reported previously.

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) manifests in various ways in the eye. Several optic nerve disorders have been described, most commonly resulting from neoplasms, opportunistic infections, and inflammatory causes [1-4]. HIV itself may be a direct cause of optic neuropathy. It is an uncommon presentation and a diagnosis of exclusion, with only a few cases described in the literature [5-7].

The neuropeptide research in the eye is the main topic of our scientific group in Innsbruck. Most of the neuropeptides have been discovered more than 30 years ago and the presence and distribution of some of them has been explored in the eye in the 80´s mainly by Richard Stone. This concerns particularly substance P (SP), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and neuropeptide Y (NPY). Whereas SP and CGRP have been found to be constituents of the sensory innervation of the eye, VIP is present in the parasympathetic and NPY in the sympathetic innervation of the eye. These results have been reviewed in 1987 in “Experientia”. In the retina, the typical neuropeptide localization are amacrine cells in the proximal inner nuclear layer and displaced amacrine cells in the ganglion cell layer but some of them are also present in ganglion cells. As mentioned above the flowering time of the neuropeptide research in the eye were the 80´s because everyone believed that these are novel neurotransmitters apart from the catecholamines, acetylcholine and certain amino acids. But it came apparent that these are rather neuromodulators and probably because of this reason the interest in neuropeptide research decreased in the last three decades. However, the innervation of the eye by several further peptides has been explored including galanin, somatostatin, cholecystokinin, nitric oxide, pituitary adenylatecyclase (PACAP) and neurokinin A and the results of these explorations have been reviewed in the year 2007 by our scientific group in Innsbruck in “Brain Research Reviews” and in the book “Neuropeptides in the eye” which has been released in 2009 in “Research Signpost”.